The Depression, which began with the crash of the stock market in October 1929, reached its worst year in 1932. It spread its gloom of unemployment and hard times throughout most of the decade. Being a highly industrialized section, the people of the Miami Valley suffered greatly. All Miami Valley cities faced frustrating and uncertain times. There was little demand for the steel produced at the Middletown rolling mills, or for the machine tools of Cincinnati. There was even a lowered demand for paper products.

In the cities there were soup kitchens, bread-lines and make-work jobs. Typical of the problems faced were those of Dayton. Local officials of the Gem City worked hard to see that its unemployed had food for their families. A Dayton welfare agency set up a Commissary, a six-story warehouse where food was purchased by the carload for the jobless. Known as the it charity warehouse" the unemployed came to pick up the food in little wagons, sleds, or carried it home in their arms.
A Dayton group also organized the Cooperative Production Units. The employed were put to work, not for wages, but in producing items that could be bartered with other producing groups. About 500 families joined one of the seven units in Dayton. Individual units specialized in producing such things as bread, clothing, shoes, soap, firewood, garden produce and canned goods.

Even Miami Valley farmers suffered, although they could grow their own food. In 1932 farm income reached its lowest level. Wheat sold for 47 cents a bushel, corn for 32 cents, with potatoes at 53 cents and apples, 64 cents a bushel. Not until 1939 when war was declared in Europe with its demand for war supplies, did production of both farm and industrial goods return to normal.

Beginning in 1930, Lowell Thomas was to dominate news casting until the era of television. This famous newscaster using the radio signature of "So-Long Until Tomorrow," had millions of listeners every evening on radio. He became the best known voice on radio, and continued to do many special features with the advent of television. His fabulous career began on April 6, 1892 when he was born at the little town of Woodington, just north of Greenville. Many mementoes of his life are displayed at the Garst Museum, Greenville.

Although he started out from the Miami Valley, Lowell Thomas was to see more of the world, write more books about it, and give more talks and lectures on it then any other man. Before news could be seen on television, Lowell Thomas presented the news by camera as the narrator for Fox Movietone news, three times a week, in theaters across the land.

After graduation from Princeton, he was appointed by President Woodrow Wilson to prepare a photographic record of World War 1, which launched him on his career. On this mission he went to Arabia where he met the mysterious, Colonel Thomas E. Lawrence, the subject of Thomas's first book, published in 1924. Lowell Thomas carried on the high standards for journalism set earlier by Miami Valley reporters such as Murat Halstead, from Butler County who made his mark as a Cincinnati editor, and Whitelaw Reid, a native of Xenia, who became the nation's star reporter of the Civil War, and then editor of the New York Tribune.

Other Miami Valley natives who became famous in film work were Lillian and Dorothy Gish; Jonathan Winters; Leslie Carter; Doris Day, Theda Bara and Marguerite Clark; Tyrone Power; and Roy Rogers.

Powel Crosley Jr. was the father of Miami Valley radio. When he was born in 1886, his family lived near Lebanon, but a few years later moved to Cincinnati. Young Crosley attended the University of Cincinnati, where he studied engineering. He began his business career in producing automobile accessories, until radio came on the scene.

It was predicted that radio would replace the phonograph in the home, for records could be played at a radio station and sent out over the air. The listener didn't have to wind up the radio after every record, as he did the phonograph, which was about once every three minutes. Radio was cheaper than buying new records, and then many homes had no phonograph. Crosley saw radio as a new medium of communication that would give isolated farm houses access to the news, as well as the latest information about agriculture.

Seeing the need for an inexpensive radio receiver, Crosley began to manufacture small sets. Then came the need for a strong area station. So in part, to help sell radio sets, Powel Crosley Jr. decided to put his own station on the air. In March 1922, WLW was first heard, but to get more airtime for the station, Crosley bought WMH built in 1919. Later WLW became the nation's first 50,000 watt commercial station, and later its only 500,000 watt station. Soon other radio voices were heard from the Queen City - WSAI, WKRC, WCPO, and WCKY.

In 1921 a 250 watt Dayton station, WFO on Rike's seventh floor began broadcasting. After several early changes in ownership, it finally emerged as WSMK in 1926 and WING in 1940. Radio WHIO's transmitter was turned on in 1935; WONE in 1949; and WAVI in 1955 moved from Springfield to Dayton. Hamilton's WMOH, and Middletown's WPFB reached the air waves in the 1940's.

It wasn't until the late 1940's that television began coming into Miami Valley homes. Large antennaes, networks of pipes and poles made of steel and aluminum were rising from the rooftops. Each block had one or two sets and neighbors were invited in to view the new marvel of the electronic age, and to enjoy a simple TV party where the main word of conversation was Shush. "

World War II had delayed the development of television, and it was not until 1947 that RCA (Radio Corporation of America) put the first practical 17-inch screen, television set on the market. It sold at a price many could afford, $179.95. In 1946 Powel Crosley Jr.'s experimental station W8XCT began to televise programs. In 1948 the experimental station became WLWT, and was the first operating station in the Miami Valley. The next year, 1949, television came to the Miami Valley in full force. On Feb. 23, 1949 WHIO-TV of Dayton began to telecast from what was then the world's tallest television tower. On March 15th WLW-D began operation, and WCPO-TV test's pattern came through in July, followed by that of WKRC-TV.

By 1950 the 12-inch screen had become standard, and television sets couldn't be shipped into the area fast enough. The people of the valley were fascinated by the new entertainment medium, and the audiences at the movies grew smaller and smaller. Talking pictures had been the major entertainment outside the home, from that first sound picture in 1927 until television. TV's first king of comedy, whose variety hour dominated the small screen was Milton Berle. Radio stars soon appeared on the television screen. In October 1957 Ruth Lyon's "Fifty-Fifty" Club became the first local show to be televised in color in the Miami Valley.

VIA ---- VOA

Carried by shortwave, the Voice of America broadcasts are heard around the world. Their announcers speak in 38 different languages to an estimated 75 million people, who often listen in secret. The programs all originate in Washington, D.C. Part of a vast network of over 100 transmitters, are the seven at the

Bethany relay station, near Mason. Located on over 600 acres in Warren County, the station, which is a simple building, is surrounded by a forest of towers, supporting 22 antennaes, aimed in various directions.

The purpose of the Voice of America (VOA) is to tell other nations, especially those that do not enjoy a free press, or uncensored radio and television news programs, the simple facts. The Voice of America began its first broadcast on Feb. 24, 1942 with the words: "We shall tell you the truth." It was a vital factor in helping to win the war of words, against the axis powers and their constant propaganda. After World War 11, the spreading threat of Communism caused the VOA to continue, and today it beams its powerful waves, despite official jamming, of the Soviet Union, on a 14-hour daily schedule. The programs always contain honest news reports, general information about world affairs, as well as entertainment. American music is very popular around the world, including rock and roll, country music and jazz.

The Bethany relay station was built by the Crosley Broadcasting Company. WLW's tower on Tylersville Road is next to the VOA transmitters. It is said that Hitler once referred to the broadcasts from the Bethany transmitters as being made by the "Cincinnati hars." The electrical power used by the VOA's seven transmitters at Bethany equals the amount needed to operate 275 AM stations.

The Harding Memorial Museum at Franklin is located in the beautiful home formerly occupied by the Harding family. The most famous member of the distinguished Miami Valley family, which migrated here from England and established paper companies both at Middletown and Franklin, was Major General Edwin Forrest Harding.

Born in 1886 at Franklin, he later graduated from West Point. His first assignment in the army was in the Philippine Islands, and then he was ordered on patrol along the Mexican border. After duty in World War I, he returned to West Point as an instructor. Then he was sent on a tour of duty in China. In 1938 he was ordered to Hawaii, and the beginning of World War II found him in command of an Infantry Division. He was assigned to command the 32nd Infantry in the Pacific theater and to direct the Buna Campaign.

After several months, his soldiers, poorly equipped, became ill due to the primitive living conditions. Without adequate supplies or reinforcements, General Harding notified General Douglas MacArthur that a planned frontal attack on Buna under existing conditions was impossible. Angered, MacArthur removed Harding from that command, and assigned him to a military post in Panama. Harding will always be remembered as the General who defied MacArthur and put his soldiers' lives above that of his own military career. History has vindicated Gen. Harding's decision. Harding finished his career as an aide to the Joint Chiefs of Staff in Washington.

In 1946 he returned to his Franklin home at 302 Park Avenue, serving in many local civic undertakings. His wife, Eleanor, was a member of the well-known Engle family of Engle's Corner, near Excello. Today their spacious Franklin home is open to the public as the home of the Franklin Area Historical Society.

The Miami Valley contains many communities with long histories, that began as small pioneer settlements, and after struggling for many years to maintain their identity, finally reached the magic number of 5,000 in population. In Ohio this figure gives city status. It took Trenton, 155 years to reach this day of triumph, but on Feb. 13, 1971 it became official. Even the Mayor of Trenton, New Jersey sent a congratulatory telegram, for the Miami Valley city is named after the one in New Jersey.

The first settlers of Trenton emigrated from New Jersey. Accompanied by Elder Stephen Gard who came to organize a Baptist church in the region, Michael Pearce arrived in the valley in 1801. Pearce obtained title to the land on which Trenton now stands in that year. He built a home on it and brought his family here in 1802.

Well located at an important crossroads, the hamlet grew into a small community serving the trading needs of a rich agricultural area. On Feb. 27, 1816 the original plat of Trenton was recorded. At first it was called Bloomfield, in honor of a popular governor of New Jersey. When a post office was proposed, it was found that the state already had a Bloomfield, so the citizens of Trenton had to pick another name. They chose Trenton, after their former capital city.

With city status Trenton made rapid progress. It organized an historical society, and then opened a new library. Then came new streets, a sewer system, and a full-time police department. The school system was reorganized and a new high school built. The attractiveness of the new city resulted in its being chosen as the site of a large plant of the Miller Brewing Company, which required the building of some new roads and upgrading city services. When the new brewery opened in 1982, it provided about 2,000 new jobs for the area. Visible for miles, Trenton's new plant is another triumph for an old town.

The carbine was a short, light rifle used by many soldiers in World War 11. It was issued to all Air Force personnel overseas. As service men from the Miami Valley carefully cleaned their carbines, few realized that the 30 M-1 shells they used in the 15-bullet clip were made in their own area. When the army replaced the .45 caliber sidearm with the carbine, it meant that a new caliber ammunition had to be produced in great quantities. In July, 1942 the giant Kings Mills plant was converted to the production of this new caliber of ammunition. The plant turned out more than 50 million pounds of carbine shells each month for the government. The Kings Mills Ordnance Plant was operated by the Remington Arms Company under control of the U.S. Army, and was one of America's largest cartridge plants.

It had begun in 1887 as the old Peters Cartridge Company along the banks of the Little Miami River. It was founded by G.M. Peters, a son-in-law of J.W. King, president of the King Powder Company on the other side of the river. After working for King for a time, Peters decided to go into business for himself, specializing in making cartridges. Later it was purchased by Remington Arms.

No longer is Kings Mills known for its ammunition, but for the 1600-acre amusement park, Kings Island. Since its opening in 1972, millions of visitors have come to enjoy its attractions, such as the Wild Animal Safari, the College Football Hall of Fame and its stadium, its Nicklaus Golf and Spe: ts Center and its thrilling rides. The centerpiece of the park is a replica of the Eiffel Tower. Today it is the largest family entertainment center, not only in the Miami Valley, but in the Midwest.

A railroad is being planned along the valley of the Little Miami River, which will tie together some of Warren County's unusual tourist attractions with Kings Island - the Playground of the Miami Valley.

It is said of Charles F. Kettering, the Dayton inventor, that he is the man who put women in the driver's seat of an automobile. Before his invention of the self-starter, it took a man to crank and start a car. An Ohio native, Kettering, graduated from Ohio State University, then obtained a job at the National Cash Register Company of Dayton. Here he built a Deeds Barn - Boss Ket's Workshop small electric motor that made it possible to operate a cash register with electricity. In 1909 Kettering, in association with E.A. Deeds, organized the Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company (Delco).

Kettering began work on a new ignition system for automobiles in 1910, and the first self-starter was installed in a 1912 Cadillac. Within two years, most cars were equipped with this new device. Kettering next turned his attention to making an anti-knock gasoline. Then he was called to General Motors to head up a new research team, where he earned the title of "Boss Ket. " In all, he and his scientific staff, patented over 100 inventions.

As the area south of Dayton developed, the citizens decided to incorporate as a city. It was given the name of Kettering to honor the famous inventor. A replica of the old barn, the first of "Boss Ket's" workshops now stands at Carillon Park. But the original barn, located in Dayton, was obtained just as it was about to be torn down. It was moved to a city park in the new Kettering, and restored. It is now operated by the Kettering Museum and Historical Society.

When he died in 1958 at the age of 82, Kettering was still involved in scientific research. He always look forward, remarking at one time, "I object to people running down the future. I'm going to live all the rest of my life there."

On July 4, 1928 the famous statue, the Madonna of the Trail, was dedicated. Due to a widening of the road, the statue was moved from its original site, but it is still along Route 40 in Springfield's Synder Park. The statue shows a simple pioneer mother dressed in homespun clothing, and wearing a sunbonnet. In one arm she is holding a baby, and in the other, a musket. Hanging onto her skirt is a small son. On her face is a look of courage, and determination as she faces the open road.

On the pedestal of the Madonna is inscribed this legend: "The National Road - Completed by the Federal Government to this point in 1839. From this point westward built by the states through which it passes." Ohio's Madonna is one of twelve sisters, part of a national program in tribute to America's pioneer mothers. All of the ten-foot tall statues are alike, coming from the same mold, and of a stone mixture. They were designed by Mrs. John Trigg Moss, who served as national chairman of the Old Trails Road Committee of the Daughters of the American Revolution. The sculptor for the project was August Leimbach.

The idea for the project began with a group of Missouri women who in 1909 decided that the old Sante Fe Trail should be marked. Judge, later President, Harry S. Truman, was elected president of the National Old Trails Association, organized to assist the D.A.R. in this project. Rather than using small iron markers as originally planned, it was decided to erect twelve identical Madonnas, with the base of each carrying a different inscription, highlighting the area in which it was to stand. Springfield being at one time the end of the National Road, was chosen as one site, thus bringing one of these rare statues to the Miami Valley.

People travel thousands of miles to visit the world-famous Air Force Museum located at Dayton, the home of aviation. Each year it hosts a million visitors, but this is only one of the attractions of the Gem City. The Gem City sits like a jewel as the capital of the Mid-Miami Valley at the intersection of Interstate Routes 70 and 75.

Against the warnings of the Indians, who knew of the frequent flooding of the site of Dayton, where the Stillwater and Mad Rivers join the Great Miami River, a little band of brave pioneers arrived on Spring day in 1796. The Indians were right about the flooding and after the disaster of the 1913 Flood, Daytonians led the way to make sure the event would not occur again.

The people of Dayton have become known for their inventiveness. Their most famous inventors were the Wright Brothers, who gave the world wings. But other Daytonians have produced the cash register, the automobile self-starter and the refrigerator.

Much of Dayton's past is still preserved at Carillon Park, and outdoor museum, the gift of Daytonian, E.A. Deeds. Here is located Newcom Tavern, the city's oldest building. Along the village's main street in this outdoor museum, are buildings with authentic exhibits featuring the Conestoga wagons and carriages, old locomotives, street cars, automobiles, and a Wright flyer plane. An original -lock of the Miami-Erie Canal was relocated here near the old covered bridge.

Other historical sites in Dayton include the Oregon Historic District, as near to Oregon as many pioneers cared to go, so they just settled down in Dayton and called their section Oregon. The old Courthouse, the steps on which Lincoln once spoke, has been restored right in the center of downtown Dayton, and is headquarters of the Montgomery County Historical Society. Around it is rising a new, revitalized downtown Dayton.

He now lives quietly in Warren County and spends his time teaching, and as a consultant. But on that one day, July 20, 1969 the eyes of the world were on him as Commander of Apollo 11. Neil Armstrong was the first Earthling to step to the powdery surface of the moon, uttering that historic remark: "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind."

Armstrong was born in 1930 at Wapakoneta on the northern rim of the Miami Valley. Even at the age of 2, he was fascinated by airplanes, and when he was 6, his father took him on his first flight. As a boy his hobby was building model airplanes and reading about aviation. He took an active part in school activities, but worked after school as a mechanic at a local airport. With this money, he took flying lessons, and by the age 16, had earned his pilot's license. This was before he had his driver's license, so he traveled back and forth to the airstrip on his bicycle.

From high school, it was Purdue University. He became a pilot for the U.S. Air Force, logging 78 combat missions over Korea. Then he joined the National Aeronautical Space Administration, NASA, and was assigned as test pilot for the X-15 plane. This experimental aircraft took him at the rate of 4,000 miles an hour to the very edge of space. Interested in space flight, Armstrong won a spot in the Gemini-8 program, and in 1966 piloted the craft in its first docking experiment.

Armstrong's ability and scientific knowledge led to the ultimate assignment - Commander of Apollo 11. With great skill, Neil Armstrong guided the lunar module, the "Eagle" to the touchdown, and set up operations at "Tranquility Base" on the moon. His planting of the U.S. flag on the Moon brought pride to everyone. This dramatic episode in history can be relived by a visit to the Neil Armstrong Museum at Wapakoneta.

On the banks of the Ohio River stands Riverfront Stadium, the largest structure of its kind in the Miami Valley. It was built in 1970, opening during the baseball season, at a cost of over $50 million. The great circular entertainment center is on three levels of parking which provides room for around 3600 cars. Ramps and escalators provide easy access to all seats. It was the first baseball field to be covered with artificial turf.

Riverfront Stadium is known all over Ohio as the home of the famous Cincinnati Reds, the oldest professional baseball team in the U.S., organized in 1869. It was at Riverfront that Hank Aaron tied Babe Ruth's record of 714 home runs. Here Pete Rose got his 3000th hit and Johnny Bench became the Reds all-time, home-run king. In its first 10 years, it hosted 23 million fans, including two presidents.

It is also the home football field of the Cincinnati Bengals. Through the efforts of Coach Paul Brown, who put the Cleveland Browns' on the state's sports map, the Bengals were organized in 1968 as an expansion team of the American Football League.

Riverfront Stadium can seat over 52,000 fans for baseball games and almost 60,000 tans tor footbaU. BasebaU is still the major attraction at Riverfront, and has been bringing in over two million fans a year. Miami Valley sports enthusiasts reach the stadium from Interstates 71 and 75, and 275. For Cincinnatians, it is an easy 15 minute walk from downtown.

Riverfront is one of five major Ohio stadiums. The Franklin County Stadium is at Columbus, as is Ohio Stadium, the home of the Buckeyes. The Lucas County Stadium is home for the Toledo Mudhens. The Cleveland Stadium features the Indians and Browns. However, in beauty and convenience, none surpasses Riverfront.

On April 3rd, 1974 a big, black cloud appeared on the horizon of the northern Miami Valley, and it tunneled into Greene County, striking Xenia the hardest of all. In Xenia it left over 2600 homes damaged, with about half of these being totally destroyed; 500 people were injured, 34 killed. Property losses reached the $100 million mark, and 350 businesses were damaged with 150 totally destroyed.

This tornado had blown up from Kentucky and the South, went through Cincinnati and then followed about the same path as Route 42, ripping at top speed through an area about 15 miles long, along a path a half-mile wide. Out of a darkened western sky it came gouging into Xenia. Some people seeing its approach ran for cover in basements, bathrooms, and huddled under tables or beds, or couches. Some in cars, stopped and jumped into ditches, hugging the ground.

The twister hit about 4:40 P.M. and luckily the school day had ended, for the tornado struck two buildings in a direct hit, reducing them to piles of rubble, while four other schools were badly damaged. Whole neighborhoods were levelled. Trees were stripped of their limbs, branches and bark. Most of Xenia's public buildings were found to have major structural damage. About 85 per cent of the city was damaged or destroyed. After hitting Xenia, the tornado struck two Miami Valley universities - Central State and Wilberforce. Here only one life was lost, but damages ran to $25 million. The same tornado left four dead in Cincinnati and 200 injured in that area. It also did some damage in Butler, Warren, Hamilton, Adams and Madison counties.

Xenia whose name is from the Greek word, meaning "hospitality" found her good deeds of the past being returned to her in the same spirit of hospitality. President Richard Nixon visited Xenia and his prediction that "this town will come back, stronger and better than before," did come true.

Ohio's oldest Big Brother, Irvin F. Westheimer, died at his home in Cincinnati on Dec. 31, 1980 at the age of 10 1 years. The Big Brothers and Big Sisters organizations merged in 1977. This service group is open to young people between the ages of 7 and 14 who would like to have an older friend. Across the U.S. over 170,000 youth are enrolled in its 400 chapters.

The story of Big Brothers begins back in 1903 when the 23-year old Westheimer looked out his office window above Vine Street in downtown Cincinnati. Below him he saw a little boy searching in a garbage can. The boy took out a bit of food, eating some of it, and sharing a scrap with his underfed dog. Westheimer rushed down the steps to the street, stopped the boy, and invited him to lunch. After this he accompanied the boy to his home, where he found a family of seven. There was no father, and the mother was trying to support her family on a low-paying job.

Westheimer found a better paying job for the mother and remained a friend to the boy for many years. He was the first Big Brother. Westheimer reasoned that there must be many more such boys without fathers who needed a friendly hand. He called some of his friends together, and organized the first Big Brothers group in America.

For many years, as a traveling salesman, Westheimer took his idea across the nation. When he went into a town, he would visit the president of the largest department store, and ask him to suggest some young men who might be interested in becoming a part of the Big Brother movement. He would then invite these men to an evening meeting, where he would present his plan for a local chapter of the organization. The idea, born in the mind of a Miami Valley salesman, grew into a nationwide organization, and is now also found in seven foreign nations.

Cincinnati's Union Terminal is open again - this time as a shopping, entertainment and office complex. A private developer brought Union Terminal back to life, and it again bustles with activity with its fine shops and restaurants replacing the trains. While it took over $20 million dollars to remodel the complex, it would no longer be possible to construct such an art-deco masterpeice today. Its original construction required the work of craftsmen no longer available. Among its attractions were the murals, the largest secular, mosiac murals in the world. These ceramic murals, in the rotunda area, depict the life and times of the 1930's.

The Terminal itself first opened in 1933. It was then the finest and most beautiful, as well as the most efficient railroad station in the United States. It served seven railroad lines that came into the Queen City, using some 94 miles of track. It was part of a total complex of almost 300 acres, including 24 buildings housing shops, game rooms, restaurants, and even a movie. It had cost of $40 million to build, employing some 300 subcontractors.

During World War II the Terminal welcomed 200 trains a day. Its capacity was 216 trains, and it could serve up to 17,000 people. At its height of operation, the Terminal complex consumed water and electricity in amounts equal to that of a city of 60,000 people. Many Miami Valley citizens remember Union Terminal during the hectic days of World War II, when thousands of soldiers went through it, or changed trains there. It was from here that many soldiers departed, after that last furlough, for overseas duty. Some returned, others did not.

With the end of the war, came the rapid decline in passenger rail traffic, and in 1972 the last train pulled out of Union Terminal. For a brief time it served other uses, then it was closed. Cincinnati welcomed its reopening in 1980.

With brush and pen, Herbert Fall recreated scenes of the past in the Miami Valley. Until his death in 1974, the Butler County artist, who lived in Madison township, painted from memory and extensive historical research, hundreds of pictures. Born in 1891, Fall, a descendant of Miami Valley pioneers, traced his origins in the valley back to a great-great grandfather, Christian Fall, who migrated to Greenbush in Preble County at the beginning of the 19th Century. His maternal ancestory was the noted Schenck line which included the founder of Franklin, and a Civil War General, who was a friend of Lincoln.

Fall's first painting, which he made as a student at the old Red Buck School on Greentree Road in Warren County, was put on exhibit at a Farmers' Institute meeting at Monroe in 1900. It won first prize. He continued his art education at the Chicago Art Institute and the Art Academy at Cincinnati, where he studied under such noted American artists as Duveneck, Meaken, Hopkins and Wessel. He became a medical art illustrator, rising to the top of that field. He drew 500 illustrations for the text, Atlas of Human Anatomy, written by Dr. Roger Crafts, College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati. The book is used in medical education in colleges of almost 40 nations.

His nostalgic paintings and sketches of life in the Miami Valley are found throughout the area. His illustrations are used in two Ohio texts, used by children throughout the state. Mr. Fall now lies among the Elk Creek hills that he loved so much in a little country cemetery at Miltonville. Some of his sketches were used to illustrate this book.

The historical etchings of the early Miami Valley are reproduced from Henry Howe's monumental book on Ohio, many were sketched by the historian himself. Various groups have granted permission to reproduce particular illustrations. The Middletown Historical Society appreciates this cooperation.